PREFACE

ABSTRACT OF VOLUME

CHAPTER I.--INTRODUCTION

Basin of the Red River of the North and of Lake Winnipeg 1
The Glacial Lake Agassiz 2
Relationship to the ice-sheet 3
Early observations of Lake Agassiz 6
Work reported in this monograph 7

Outlet, bed, and shores of Lake Agassiz 15

River Warren 15
The Red River Valley 19
Shore-lines 26
Deltas 27
Dunes 28
Wooded region of northern Minnesota and of Manitoba and Keewatin, partly covered by this lake 29

Country bordering Lake Agassiz on the east 30

Giants Range 31
Mesabi Range 31
Mesabi and Itasca moraines 32
Leaf Hills 33

Country west of Lake Agassiz 34

The Coteau des Prairies 36
Ascent from the Red River Valley in North Dakota 39
The Manitoba escarpment 40

Pembina Mountain 40
Tiger Hills 42
Riding and Duck mountains 42
Porcupine and Pasquia hills 43
Great Bear Hills 44

Forest and prairie 44
Existing lakes within the area of Lake Agassiz 46

Lake Winnipeg 47
Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis 48
Rainy Lake 49
Lake of the Woods 49
Red Lake 49
Rivers tributary to Lake Agassiz and draining its area 50

Rainy and Winnipeg rivers 50
Red Lake River 52
Red River 54
Sheyenne River 56
Langs Valley 57
Pembina River 57
Assiniboine River 58
Qu'Appelle and Souris rivers 59
Little Saskatchewan or Fairford River 61
Saskatchewan River 61
Smaller tributaries of Lake Winnipeg 62
Nelson River 62

Extension of the basin of Lake Agassiz by glacial lakes outflowing to it from the region of the Peace and Athabasca rivers 63

Archean formations 65

The Archean area in Minnesota 66
Vicinity of the Lake of the Woods, Rainy Lake, and northward 67
Boundary of the Archean toward the west 67

Lower Silurian formations 68

Outcrops on Lake Winnipeg 69
East Selkirk 70
Lower Fort Garry 71
Stony Mountain 71
Little Stony Mountain 71
Stonewall 72

Upper Silurian and Devonian formations 72
Sections of artesian wells in Paleozoic strata 74

Well at Humboldt, Minn. 74
Well at Grafton, N. Dak. 77
Well at Rosenfeld, Manitoba 78
Well at Morden, Manitoba 81

Cretaceous formations 81

Marine series of the Upper Missouri 81
In the South Saskatchewan basin 82
Along the Manitoba escarpment 83
The brackish and freshwater Laramie formation 84
The western plains a lacustrine and land area since the early part of the Laramie epoch 85

Fort Pierre shales west of Lake Agassiz 86

Southwestern Minnesota and the Coteau des Prairies 86
Along the Sheyenne River 91
In the escarpment and plateau of Pembina Mountain 93
In western Manitoba and Assiniboia 97

Former extent of Cretaceous beds eastward on the area of Lake Agassiz 100
Sources of the Cretaceous deposits 101
Denudation of the Cretaceous area 102

Erosion of the plains to a baselevel 102
Later erosion of the trough of Lake Agassiz 104

Review of the Glacial period in North America 108
The continental ice-sheet 110

Boundaries 110
Area and thickness 112

Laurentide and Cordilleran centers of outflow 119
Junction of the Laurentide and Cordilleran drift 120
Comparison with the present ice-sheet of Greenland 123

Recession of the ice-sheet 126

Latest glaciation far north 128

Glacial currents within the basin of Lake Agassiz 129

Table of courses of glacial striæ 129
Converging lobes of the ice-sheet in Minnesota and Manitoba 129
Transportation of bowlders 130

Drift deposits on the lacustrine area and the adjoining region 132

Derivation of the drift from preglacial residuary detritus and from glacial erosion 132
Thickness of the drift 133

Till or bowlder-clay 134

Bowlders and gravel from Archean and Paleozoic formations 136
Northeastern limit of limestone drift 137
Localities of very abundant and large bowlders 137

Terminal moraines 139
     Earlier moraines formed before the beginning of Lake Agassiz 141

Sixth or Waconia moraine 142

     Moraines contemporanous with Lake Agassiz 146

Seventh or Dovre moraine 147
Eighth or Fergus Falls moraine 158
Ninth or Leaf Hills moraine 163
Tenth or Itasca moraine 173
Eleventh or Mesabi moraine 177

Modified or assorted drift 179
     Belt of modified drift between St. Paul and Winnipeg 181
     Birds Hill and other eskers in Manitoba 183
Proportion of modified drift supplied to the deltas of Lake Agassiz 189
Influence of adjoining lakes or the sea on the deposition of the drift 190

Two classes of Pleistocene lakes 192

Lakes Bonneville, Lahontan, and others in the Great Basin 192
Lake Agassiz and other glacial lakes 194

Evidences of glacial lakes 195

Outlets 195
Eroded cliffs 198
Beaches 199
Deltas 200
Lacustrine sediments 201

Principal glacial lakes of the northern United States and of Canada 202

New England, Quebec, the eastern provinces, the Northeast Territory, and Labrador 202
Basins of the Laurentian lakes and of Hudson Bay 203
Basins of the Saskatchewan and the Red River of the North 205
British Columbia, Athabasca, and the Northwest Territory 206

Extension of Lake Agassiz with the departure of the ice-sheet 208

Stages of growth shown by moraines 210
Reduction to the present great lakes of Manitoba 216

Successive shore-lines of Lake Agassiz 221
Dependence of the lake levels on the erosion and changes of outlets 222

Progress of erosion by the River Warren 222
Later outlets northeastward 226

Dependence of lake levels on epeirogenic elevation 227

Depression of the continent shown by coastal submergence 229
Depression and reelevation of the basin of Lake Agassiz shown by differentially uplifted beaches 230
Improbable hypothesis of an outlet from lake Agassiz to the Mackenzie River 231
Probable hypothesis of the discharge from the northeastward outlets being tributary successively to the Mississippi and Hudson rivers 232
Division of the ice-sheet into parts east and west of Hudson Bay 233
Amount of differential elevation between Lake Traverse and Gladstone 234
Alternate stages of elevation and rest 235
Later and greater inclination of beaches along the base of Riding and Duck mountains 235
Review of the epeirogenic uplifting 236

Molluscan fauna of Lake Agassiz 237
Measurements of time since the Glacial period 238
Short duration of Lake Agassiz 240

Comparison with postglacial lakes 240
Comparison with Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan 241
Brevity of time required for the formation of terminal moraines 242

ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATIONS, BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN 244
Volume of water received and discharged by Lake Agassiz 252
Fluvial deposits in the Red River Valley 253
Associated glacial lakes 254

The Laurentian lakes 255
Lake Minnesota 264
Lake Dakota 266
Lake Souris 267
Lake Saskatchewan 272
Glacial lakes of the Peace and Athabasca basins 274

The upper or Herman beaches and deltas in Minnesota 278

From Lake Traverse east to Herman 279
From Herman north to the Red River 282
From the Red River north to Muskoda 284
Delta of the Buffalo River 290
From Muskoda north to the Sand Hill River 292
Delta of the Sand Hill River 298
Vicinity of Maple Lake 299
Eastward to Red Lake and the Big Fork of Rainy River 303
Beltrami Island 304

The upper or Herman beaches and deltas in North Dakota 306

From Lake Traverse northwest to Milnor 306
From Milnor north to Sheldon 312
Delta of the Sheyenne River 315
From Sheldon north to the Northern Pacific Railroad 317
From the Northern Pacific Railroad north to Galesburg 322
From Galesburg north to Larimore 326
Delta of the Elk Valley 333
Shore west of the Elk and Golden valleys 337
Beaches and islands east of the Elk and Golden valleys 345
From Gardar north to the Tongue River 354
Delta of the Pembina River 357

The upper or Herman beaches and deltas in Manitoba 363

From the international boundary to the vicinity of Neepawa 363
Delta of the Assiniboine River 370

Beaches of the Norcross stages 383

From Lake Traverse to Norcross and Maple Lake, Minnesota 383
Through North Dakota, from Lake Traverse to the international boundary 388
Western Norcross shores in Manitoba 393

Beaches of the Tintah stages 396

Eastern Tintah shores, from Lake Traverse to Tintah and northward in Minnesota 396
Western Tintah shores in North Dakota 402
Western Tintah shores in Manitoba 404

Beaches of the Campbell stages 407

From Lake Traverse and Campbell north to the Tamarack River, in Minnesota 408
Campbell shores in North Dakota 414
Campbell shores in western Manitoba 422

Beaches of the McCauleyville stages 427

Eastern McCauleyville shores in Minnesota 428
Western McCauleyville shores in North Dakota 434
Western McCauleyville shores in Manitoba 439

Beaches of the Blanchard stages 445
The Hillsboro Beach 449
Beaches of the Emerado stages 454
Beaches of the Ojata stages 459
The Gladstone beach 462
The Burnside beach 465
The Ossowa beach 468
The Stonewall beach 470
Beaches of the Niverville stages 471

Northward ascent of the western shorelines 474
Eastward ascent of the former lake levels 483
Rate of ascent greatest toward the north-northeast 485
Changes of levels nearly completed during the existence of Lake Agassiz 486
Causes of the changes of levels 487

Gravitation toward the ice-sheet 488
Changes in the temperature of the earth's crust 491
Epeirogenic movements apparently dependent on glaciation 492

Discussion of the relationship of the earth's crust to the interior 493
History of the doctrine of crust deformation by the ice-sheet 497
Tardiness in the beginning of the changes of levels of the Lake Agassiz basin 498
Pauses in the crustal uplift recorded by the series of beaches 499
Changes in levels of the beaches only a partial measure of the ice weight 500

Review of Pleistocene oscillations of land and sea 501

Preglacial elevation of North America shown by fjords and submarine river valleys 501
Late Glacial or Champlain submergence shown by the fossiliferous marine beds overlying the till 505
Reelevation closely following the departure of the ice-sheet 507
Oscillations associated with glaciation in other countries 509
Pleistocene oscillations independent of glaciation 512
Effects of ice accumulation on the sea-level 515

Probable relationship of epeirogenic movements throughout the world to glaciation 516

Epeirogenic movements independent of glaciation often combined with others due to the ice weight and to its removal 520

Uplift of the basin of Lake Agassiz apparently attributable wholly to the departure of the ice-sheet 521

Sources of the artesian waters 525

Fresh water from porous beds of the drift sheet 526
Saline and alkaline water from the Dakota sandstone 527

Relationship to the artesian wells of Devils Lake and the James River Valley 528
Relationship to artesian wells at Tower City and Grafton, N. Dak., Humboldt, Minn., and Rosenfeld, Manitoba 535

Analyses of waters from wells, streams, and lakes in the Red River Valley and the adjoining region 536
Use of artesian water for irrigation 545
Notes of artesian and common wells 548

Wells on the area of Lake Agassiz in Minnesota 550

Traverse County 550
Wilkin County 551
Clay County 555
Norman County 557
Polk County 559
Marshall County 562
Kittson County 564

Wells on the area of Lake Agassiz North Dakota 565

Richland County 565
Cass County 567
Traill County 570
Grand Forks County 573
Walsh County 574
Pembina County 575

Wells on the area of Lake Agassiz in Manitoba 576

Variety and distribution of the soils 583
Climatic conditions 592

Rainfall and snowfall 592

Fluctuations of lakes and streams 594

Temperature 598
Winds 600

Flora of the basin of the Red River of the North 601

Forest trees and shrubs 603

Causes of limitation of the forest 604

Prairie grasses and flowers 606

Development of agriculture 610

Wheat and other cereals 615
Hay, potatoes, flax, and other crops 621
Stock raising and dairying 624

Geologic resources 625

Gold 625
Building stone 626
Lime 626
Bricks 627
Salt 628
Lignite 629
Natural gas 631

Water power and manufactures 631

APPENDIX B.--NOTES OF ABORIGINAL EARTHWORKS WITHIN AND NEAR THE AREA OF LAKE AGASSIZ.

INDEX

PLATE I. Browns Valley, the outlet of Lake Agassiz by the River Warren (Frontispiece.)

PLATE II. Map showing the relationship of Lake Agassiz to the drift-bearing area of North America and to Lakes Bonneville and Lahontan

PLATE III. Map showing the areas of Lake Agassiz and of the upper Laurentian lakes

PLATE IV. Town of Browns Valley, Minn.

PLATE V. Lake Traverse

PLATE VI. Upper Herman beach of Lake Agassiz

PLATE VII. The Lightning's Nest (dunes of the Sheyenne delta)

PLATE VIII. The Leaf Hills

PLATE IX. Map with altitudes of Lake Agassiz and adjoining country

PLATE X. Map with altitudes of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, explored with leveling in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba

PLATE XI. Map of Rainy Lake and the Lake of the Woods

PLATE XII. Map of Red Lake and its vicinity

PLATE XIII. Map of drainage systems on the area of Lake Agassiz and adjoining country

PLATE XIV. Map of the rock formations underlying the drift on the area of Lake Agassiz

PLATE XV. Sections of wells at Humboldt, Minn., Grafton, N. Dak., and Rosenfeld and Morden, Manitoba

PLATE XVI. Map of the glaciated area of North America

PLATE XVII. Map of the drift deposits on the southern portion of the basin of Lake Agassiz.

PLATE XVIII. Map of Devils and Stump lakes

PLATE XIX. Map showing the extent of Lake Agassiz at the times of formation of the Fergus Falls and Leaf Hills moraines

PLATE XX. Map showing the extent of Lake Agassiz at the times of formation of the Itasca and Mesabi moraines

PLATE XXI. Map of the Glacial Lake Souris

PLATE XXII. Map of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, explored with leveling in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Manitoba, showing the location of Plates XXIII-XXXII

PLATE XXIII. Map of Lakes Traverse and Big Stone, and the shores of Lake Agassiz near its mouth

PLATE XXIV. Map of the eastern shores of Lake Agassiz from Campbell north to Barnesville and its vicinity

PLATE XXV. Map of the eastern beaches and deltas of Lake Agassiz from Muskoda north to the Sand Hill River

PLATE XXVI. Map of the eastern shores of Lake Agassiz, in the vicinity of Maple Lake and northward

PLATE XXVII. Map showing the greater part of the Sheyenne delta of Lake Agassiz and contiguous beaches

PLATE XXVIII. Map of the western shores of Lake Agassiz from the vicinity of Wheatland north to Portland and Mayville

PLATE XXIX. Map of the western shores of Lake Agassiz and of the Elk Valley delta in Grand Forks County and parts of adjoining counties

PLATE XXX. Map of the western shores of Lake Agassiz and of the Pembina delta, from Park River north to the international boundary

PLATE XXXI. Map of the western shores of Lake Agassiz from Morden and Thornhill north to the Assiniboine River

PLATE XXXII. Map of the western shores of Lake Agassiz, in the vicinity of the Canadian Pacific Railway and north to Orange Ridge

PLATE XXXIII. Map of the delta of the Assiniboine River

PLATE XXXIV. Map of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, showing its extent in the lower Campbell stage

PLATE XXXV. Map of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, showing its extent in the lower Blanchard stage

PLATE XXXVI. Map of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, showing its extent in the Gladstone stage

PLATE XXXVII. Map showing the distribution and depths of artesian wells in the Red River Valley

PLATE XXXVIII. Map of the southern portion of Lake Agassiz, showing areas of forest and prairie

FIG. 1. Order of sections in townships of the United States and of Manitoba

FIG. 2. Section across the Red River Valley on the latitude of Breckenridge and Wahpeton

FIG. 2. Section across the Red River Valley on the latitude of Moorhead and Fargo

FIG. 4. Section across the Red River Valley from Larimore and Grand Forks to Maple Lake

FIG. 5. Section across the Red River Valley on the international boundary

FIG. 6. Typical section across a beach ridge of Lake Agassiz

FIG. 7. Eroded terrace marking the shore of Lake Agassiz

FIG. 8. Section across the Coteau des Prairies

FIG. 9. Map of Birds Hill and its vicinity

FIG. 10. Section of Birds Hill

FIG. 11. Section across the delta of the Buffalo River

FIG. 12. Section across the delta of the Sand Hill River

FIG. 13. Section across the delta of the Sheyenne River

FIG. 14. Section across the delta of the Elk Valley

FIG. 15. Section across the delta of the Pembina River

FIG. 16. Section across the delta of the Assiniboine River

FIG. 17. Profile of the Campbell escarpment in section 6, Dundee, N. Dak.

FIG. 18. Profile of the Campbell escarpment 1 mile south of Mountain, N. Dak.

FIG. 19. Section across the Campbell embankment, in sections 20 and 2l, T. 161, R. 55, N. Dak.

FIG. 20. Profile across beaches at and near Barnesville, Minn.

FIG. 21. Section of the Campbell and McCauleyville beaches, in sections 33 and 34, Liberty, Minn.

FIG. 22. Profile across beaches on the north line of Onstead and Godfrey, Minn., west of Maple Lake

FIG. 23. Profile across beaches at and near Wheatland, N. Dak.

FIG. 24. Profile across beaches at Hunter, N. Dak., and westward

FIG. 25. Profile across beaches in the vicinity of Arvilla and Larimore, N. Dak.

FIG. 26. Profile across beaches at Inkster, N. Dak., and westward

FIG. 27. Profile across beaches at Park River, N. Dak., and westward

FIG. 28. Section on the international boundary, south of ranges 6 and 5, Manitoba

FIG. 29. Section across ranges 6 and 5, Manitoba, 9 to 10 miles north of the international boundary

FIG. 30. Section on the south side of township 15, ranges 13 and 12, Manitoba, between Arden and Gladstone

FIG. 31. Diagram indicating the probable relationship of sources of artesian water at Grandin, N. Dak.

FIG. 32. Section across the Red River Valley, showing the water supply of its fresh artesian wells

FIG. 33. Section from the Rocky Mountains to the Red River Valley, showing the water supply of its saline artesian wells

FIG. 34. Section showing the series of artesian wells from Devils Lake and Jamestown southward to Yankton and Vermillion

FIG. 35. Section showing the series of artesian wells from Harold eastward to Huron